In traditional Chinese philosophy, “man-heaven unification” (天人合一) represents an ideal state of harmony and balance between human beings and the natural world or cosmic order. It emphasises aligning one’s actions and conduct with the principles of the universe, the interconnectedness, and interdependence between humanity and the larger cosmos.

Traditional Chinese craftsmanship has long focused on pursuing harmony, balance, and meticulous attention to detail, which are integral to the concept of man-heaven unification. Since I moved to Jingdezhen, I have encountered many advocates of this concept. I have contemplated its significance in Chinese art and observed how it influences the craftsmanship process and the approach of artisans to their work. Some even regard man-heaven unification as one of the greatest contributions of Chinese culture to humanity. (This statement is also supported by some scholars, e.g., see [1] in Chinese)

The interpretation of “heaven” (天) in Chinese philosophy can vary, leading to potential inconsistencies within the statement. Sometimes, “heaven” represents destiny, while other times, it can represent nature.

Let’s consider the claims from both schools of thoughts:

1. Heaven as destiny: In Western thought, “heaven” and “life” are often regarded as separate realms, with an external destiny beyond human existence. In contrast, Chinese culture views “heaven” and “life” as synonymous, without distinction. This perspective eliminates the need for religious beliefs about heaven as a prerequisite for discussing life. Chinese thought avoids separating “heaven” from “man” as hidden or present, acknowledging their inseparability.

2. Heaven as nature: Western ideology seeks to conquer and dominate nature, while Eastern philosophy emphasises harmony with nature. The proposition of “Heaven and man are one” reflects this Eastern attitude of befriending and understanding nature, which forms the foundation for seeking reciprocity with it.

For most craftsmen I confronted, “heaven” refers to a collective force that influences both destiny and the surrounding natural environment. When craftsmen place pottery in the firing kiln, they entrust the destiny of the pieces to heaven, and the natural qualities bestowed by heaven are revealed during the firing process. This stage represents the unification of the mighty from heaven and man for many craftsmen.

It is true that Eastern thought is very different from Western attitudes in that it is reluctant to seek truth from the outside but believes that truth is inherent in the world of life itself and only refers to its universality by seeking reason introverted. However, it is essential to acknowledge the potential negative effects of steadfastly pursuing the state of “man-heaven unification” without critical examination.

Chinese craftsmen, as part of the engineer-techno-bureaucratic tradition, primarily focus on creating functional objects with specific purposes. They often prioritise technical skills and practical knowledge over self-expression, exploration of ideas, and abstract or aesthetic concepts. The unification of heaven and man seems to play a significant role in shaping this craftsman-like character because craftsmen, while demonstrating creativity in their craftsmanship, may place more emphasis on the technical execution and attention to detail in bringing an object to life; they rely on the collective force to initiate the conceptualisation and creative process. It explains most Chinese craftsmen I met do not seek to convey ideas, meanings, or narratives of their creations. They are not expected to have a unique vision or personal voice, nor are they driven to push boundaries or challenge norms. Their focus lies in established frameworks, traditions, and techniques, emphasising mastery rather than personal expression.


It is difficult to directly attribute the characteristics I mentioned above solely to the belief in man-heaven unification. However, I am inclined to view man-heaven unification as a fundamental philosophical norm that upholds these characteristics.

Please DON’T take me wrong. If the doctrine of man-heaven unification could contribute to the world humanity, I’d very much like to support this cultural contribution. However, my concern is that in Eastern culture, where this doctrine takes root, a fundamental philosophical norm of pursuing universal harmony may obstruct the diverse contemporary worldviews. At least, it is evident to me that the introverted tendency hinders the progress of inviting craftsmen to engage with contemporary arts.

The man-heaven unification, as understood through the concept of the pursuit of harmony, may suppress the presence of diverse ideas and perspectives. In a community where individuals have the freedom to express their opinions and engage in open dialogue, there is a greater likelihood of encountering differing viewpoints, values, and interests. Embracing this diversity of voices can introduce challenges and complexities that require expressions, narratives, and creations, as well as negotiation and compromise. These differences need to be engaged in dialogue, seeking common ground that can lead to mutually acceptable solutions. This whole extrovert process goes beyond the craftsmen’s concerns within the framework of man-heaven unification.

I think it is time to investigate the Achilles heel in man-heaven unification. Without comprehending its fundamental deficiencies, individuals may fervently pursue this ideal image, aligning their actions and conduct with the principles of the “universe,” oblivious to the potential dangers it poses. Thus, I propose adopting a nuanced approach to interpreting the philosophical and metaphysical aspects of man-heaven unification. By “nuanced,” I mean embracing a subtle and refined perspective that acknowledges the intricate nuances and shades of meaning within the doctrine. The key lies in establishing a vague connection between the concept of man-heaven unification and self-similarity and then subsequently exposing the deficiency inherent in holding a universal belief in self-similarity.

Self-similarity is a mathematical and scientific concept that describes a pattern or structure that repeats itself on different scales or levels of magnification, often associated with fractals where each part of a fractal pattern resembles the whole. In a philosophical interpretation, self-similarity can be applied to the relationship between an individual and the larger universe or cosmic order. It suggests that there is a resonance or similarity between the microcosm (the individual) and the macrocosm (the universe). This resonance implies that the qualities, principles, or patterns observed in the individual can reflect or mirror the qualities, principles, or patterns of the larger universe.

From this perspective, the idea of “man-heaven unification” can be seen as a manifestation of self-similarity. By aligning one’s actions, conduct, and inner state with the principles of the universe, an individual can achieve a state of resonance or harmony with the larger cosmic order. This alignment and resonance can be viewed as a form of self-similarity, where the individual becomes a microcosm reflecting the qualities and principles of the macrocosm.

However, the self-similarity could break when there is a significant departure or deviation from the underlying structure for self-similarity relies on the repetition or recurrence of a structure at different scales. If a fractal pattern suddenly deviates from its repeating structure, the self-similarity is lost. A randomness, a transition, or a chaotic element could easily disrupt the self-similar structure. That is why the self-similarity in each branch of the snowflake will gradually reform when external factors like temperature or humidity fluctuate during their formation, leading to irregular or asymmetrical snowflake shapes at the end. Self-similarity in nature can be disrupted due to various factors such as environmental conditions, growth limitations, external forces, or inherent variability.

Similarly, man-heaven unification may face challenges or become more complex in sensitive or chaotic social, political, or economic situations. Due to complex and multifaceted external factors, diverse perspectives and interests, debates, tensions, and disagreements are likely to arise, disrupting the simple “self-similar” structure in man-heaven unification. In fact, sensitive or chaotic situations often raise questions and controversies about the meaning and validity of man-heaven unification.

It seems that in order to complement the deficiency caused by simple, “self-similar” doctrine of man-heaven unification, the system should develop an opposite doctrine that can democratise the structure by balancing individual desires with the mighty collective forces. This complementary doctrine, similar to the role of negative theology, provides an opportunity to consider a broader range of perspectives, ensuring that the pursuit of harmony accommodates the diversity of individual viewpoints.

The doctrine should continuously challenge and break the notion of man-heaven unification, exposing its inconsistency and highlighting its insufficiency. On the other hand, it should represent an act of hospitality, critiquing the dominant unification of hospitality as familial, extreme patriotism, or cosmopolitanism, and exemplifying the new concept of unconditional hospitality to every other as absolutely other.

In the realm of arts, the rejection of man-heaven unification can be translated into diverse conceptual themes, conveying multifaceted emotions, narratives, or philosophical concepts through artworks. This allows for the emergence of new and different voices and experiences, moving beyond unitary literal representations and exploring multi-valued abstract forms, symbolism, and metaphorical languages.

Whether the man-heaven unification is one of the greatest contributions of Chinese culture to humanity is beyond my assessment, I would like to see its contribution on a global scale. But at the local scale, I personally advocate a complementary emergence of breaking the man-heaven unification inside Chinese culture. By negating the concept of heaven, we can enable the reinvention of Chinese ethical-political responsibility, judgment, and decision-making in an increasingly technocratic society that tends to reduce such questions to matters of a unified engineer-techno-bureaucratic administration.

By denying the prevalent, existing ideas of heaven, we are approaching heaven that cannot be described.

[1] 季羡林：“天人合一”新解, http://www.aisixiang.com/data/23861.html, 包含钱穆发表在《中国文化》，1991年8月第四期的论文。